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02/1 Planet Earth 1 | Fusion & Decay Heat.pdf

Conclusion

1. The biosphere’s ecological systems are awkwardly wedged between nuclear fusion and radioactive decay receiving heat energy from both

2. The Sun transmutes Hydrogen to Helium by fusion with mass defect heat as a Yellow Dwarf on the main sequence of stellar evolution

3. Primordial heat and radioactive decay heat from the core cause convection currents in the mantle powering plate tectonic phenomena

4. Wegener’s Continental Drift explained by Plate Tectonics is the leading example of a Paradigm Shift in the history of scientific thought

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Discussion

The biosphere, the sum total of ecological systems of life, is wedged between the heat impact of the Sun and the primordial and radiogenic heat impact of the Earth’s core. The first is 1.2 x 1017W from hydrogen fusion nuclear energy and the second is 4.4 x 1013W, of which at least half is from U238 etc radionuclide decay heat nuclear energy. The Sun is a star with Hydrogen fusing to Helium at the rate of 600mt/s with a mass defect of 4.3mt/s released as heat energy. It is a type of main sequence star on the Hertzsprung Russell H-R Diagram termed a ‘Yellow Dwarf’ and middle aged at 4.6bn years in a stable life of some 10bn years. Then it moves off the main sequence to become a Red Giant before losing half its mass to form a surrounding nebula, becoming a White Dwarf and eventually dying as a cold Black Dwarf. Astronomical observation from antiquity onwards, nuclear physics and geophysics have built this overview. Geophysics, the discipline of the study of the Earth, dates to the explosion in scientific activity in the 19th century. Wegener’s Continental Drift Hypothesis was much derided, but proved to be correct given the core heat leading to a slow convection current in the mantle moving the rigid tectonic plates forming the lithosphere or outer shell of the Earth. The upwelling of mantle at ocean ridges and its corresponding subduction at plate boundaries causes earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanoes. Disparate scientific disciplines were brought together under the umbrella term geophysics and what is now termed data science was used in the computation of the tectonic plate fitting or ‘Bullard’s Fit’ in 1965 to delineate a prior supercontinent Pangaea. The Tectonic Plate Theory has been seen as a Paradigm Shift in science as described by Kuhn 1962 and as touched on by Fleck 1935 and Kant 1787. It is therefore of some significance in the History and Philosophy of Science. However, Bullard’s Fit replicated work done by a French geologist using a similar method for determining plate boundaries, but fitted by hand and published in 1935. In French, the Choubert work had been ignored. Recent research shows that plate tectonics recycles the Earth’s surface providing life with necessary mineral micronutrients so maintaining the atmospheric disequilibrium as part of the Gaia Hypothesis overall homeostasis.

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Chronology

1611

Fabricius having studied at Leiden University uses camera obscura telescopy to observe sunspots safely on an apparently rotating Sun publishing his results that year

1814

Frauenhofer invents the spectroscope discovering solar spectrum absorption lines and variant absorption lines for other stars launching the science of stellar spectroscopy

1834

Fröbel coins the term Geophysik, a chair at Göttingen University is established in 1898 and the defining International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics is launched 1919

1862

The first estimate of primordial heat flow is made by Kelvin: with radioactive decay heat flow the current total estimate is 4.4 x 1013W with the contribution split uncertain

1875

Suess coins the term biosphere for organic life sandwiched in the zone between the upper lithosphere and lower atmosphere an early pioneer of ecology with Vernadsky

1912

Wegener proposes Continental Drift, Hess reports ocean seafloor spreading 1960 and lithosphere plate tectonics theory is accepted on the Bullard’s Fit evidence 1965

1920

Eddington proposes fusion for the inexplicable scale of the Sun’s energy with a Hydrogen to Helium transmutation net loss of mass m of the Einstein Equation E = mc2

1939

Bethe et al publish papers on Eddington’s H + H → He proposal via Be and Li transmutations and also via C, N and O transmutations for stars more massive than the Sun

1957

IGY covers geophysical disciplines: airglow, aurora, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, gravity, ionosphere, mapping, meteorology, oceanography, seismology, and solar activity

2008

The success of the International Geophysical Year IGY 1957 leads to the UN promoted International Year of Planet Earth IYPE to cover hazard, sustainability etc issues

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Glossary

Bullard

Sir Edward Crisp 1907 – 1980 A leading geophysicist

A computerised approach using a true continental edge measure gave the Bullard’s Fit showing Pangaea in 1965

Choubert

Boris 1906 – 1983 A little appreciated geologist

He reports a pre Atlantic paleocontinent Pangaea using the 1,000m isobath (Bullard 3,000ft) edge measure 1935

Fleck

Ludwik 1896 – 1961 A physician eminent in bacteriology

He first describes the social construction of a scientific research Denkkollektiv and its innovation process

H-R Diagram

Hertzsprung Russell Diagram Analysing stellar evolution

A scatter plot of observed stars Y axis absolute magnitude X axis temperature colour showing stellar evolution

Hess

Harry Hammond 1906 – 1969 A geologist of Island Arcs fame

Upwelling magma at mid oceanic ridges and sea floor spreading is a ridge push and a slab pull on tectonic plates

IGY

International Geophysical Year 1957 – 1958 A research dynamic

Marred by the US USSR competition in the launching of satellites nevertheless a considerable scientific success

IYPE

International Year of Planet Earth 2008 Repeating IGY success

UN, UNEP, UNESCO etc promotion of the importance of Earth sciences in achieving sustainable development

Kant

Immanuel 1724 – 1804 The major philosopher of his time

Used the phrase revolution of the way of thinking Revolution der Denkart with reference to scientific advances

Kuhn

Thomas Samuel 1922 – 1996 The incommensurability concept

Publishes The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 1962: proposing a 'Paradigm Shift' in scientific advances

Pangaea

Wegener’s controversially conjectured Urkontinent 'Pangaea'

The last supercontinent formed 335m BP surrounded by a superocean Panthalassa: it broke up from 175m BP

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